Student Activism in the 1960s and 1970s Essay Example Essay Example

Student Activism in the 1960s and 1970s Essay Example Paper Student Activism in the 1960s and 1970s Essay Introduction Student activism is defined as the movement of students who want to implement change in the political, economic, environmental, or social milieu of the society (Haskins and Benson 1988). In most cases, student activism is focused on student rights, specifically on the fight against tuition increase or curriculum changes. In extreme cases, student activism has also helped a lot in effecting changes in the political setting of a country. The fact is student activism was very active in these two decades. This was true not only in Western countries, but in other parts of the world too. In the Philippines, the 1970s were marked with protests against the conjugal dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos. Students from the country’s premiere university, the University of the Philippines, formed the so-called â€Å"Diliman commune† to barricade their campus against the onslaught of the military that remained loyal to the President. Students demanded the resignation of a corr upt leader. The protests eventually led to the People Power revolution more than a decade later. In France, student activists were also instrumental in shaping the latest history of the country. At one point, the University of Paris was closed in 1968 because there was a brewing problem between the administration and the students. To denounce the closure of the university and to condemn the kicking out of student activists, Sorbonne students in Paris also started their own protests and mass demonstrations. The scattered movements stirred national consciousness and their small-time activities eventually intensified into a national civil disobedience. Student Activism in the 1960s and 1970s Essay Body Paragraphs In Indonesia, student groups were always the first group to stage street protests against the government. To prove their indispensability, other organizations would often seek to solicit the support of student groups to strengthen their causes. In the 1960s, university students held demonstrations to call for the elimination of alleged Communists within President Sukarno’s administration. These student activists were also instrumental in the eventual resignation of Sukarno in 1967. In Canada, the late 1950s and the 1960s also witnessed the emergence of several new left student organizations. At that time, two of the several dominant left groups in the country were the Company of Young Canadians (CYC) and the Student Union for Peace Action (SUPA). From the pacifistic and moralistic Combined Universities Campaign for University Disarmament (CUCND), the SUPA was established in 1964. Its scope included grass-roots politics in underprivileged communes, and raising awareness of the ‘generation gap’ being experienced by Canadian youth and their adult counterparts. At that time, student activism in the United States of America was also getting more active. Its causes specifically geared towards changing the existing educational system in the country. This does not mean to say that the causes these movements were fighting for were new. In fact, student activism in this country started way, way back when public education was just starting. In fact, the earliest documented student activism dates back to 1930s. The American Youth Congress, a movement heavily supported by then First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, urged the US Congress to act against racial discrimination. The 1960s The 1960s saw young people all over the world struggling to take part in their respective country’s future. These young people wanted their voices heard, and so they went out on the streets in protest to make their government listen. In America, the 1960s was a very crucial ti me. Together with the other young people worldwide, young Americans discovered their personal potential to help effect changes in their political and economic environment. At that time, their main concern were to give student clearer voice at school, and to fight racial segregation – a practice that had been prevalent before. Indeed, political activism flourished in America at this point. Civil rights were high up on every movement’s agenda. Some even challenged the US participation in the Vietnam War. During the 1960s, school campuses were used as meeting points for political activities that would often include protests with marches (Miller 1987). Some of these protest rallies were violent that some participating students were unnecessarily hurt. The 1960s was a turbulent time in the country. Too much freedom was in the offing, and this was underscored by the many issues that were pulling the country down at that time. In fact, those who fought for freedom and challe nge the status quo were branded as â€Å"hippies.† Many adults criticized young people’s kind of music, clothes, sexual freedom, and even drug use. The term â€Å"the generation gap† was coined to explain the differences between these young people and the adults that surrounded them. On the other hand, those who stayed on the side of the status quo were called â€Å"the establishment.† Yet, it was apparent that the lively democratic environment during the 1960s encouraged disagreements even among those who wanted to effect social and political changes in the country. It is no wonder then that student activism in the US achieved political prominence during the 1960s. Several student movements were established for various causes back then. One of these movements was the Ann Arbor Youth Liberation. It figured students fighting for an end to state-led education. There was also the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, a movement which primarily worked ag ainst the increasing racism in the country. The movement also called for the incorporation of US public schools. Another focal point of this period was the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). It was a student-led organization that believed that schools are a social agent that both strengthens and oppresses society. The movement eventually produced the so-called Weather Underground. However, these organizations eventually died down in the middle of the 1970s. The 1970s As the heat of student activism started to dwindle in the 1970s, some young activists continued their struggle in a bid to gain more freedom and choices. The Viet Nam War that happened early on underlined the social estrangement that was echoed in the campaign of black Americans for justice and equality in an ever hostile society. Revolution and liberation were still the prominent words, even as resistance to the war caused hippies, radical youth, hippies, artists and musicians to band together for a common cause . The previous decade of protest supported an age of rage and idealism, of activism and rebellion, and of buoyancy and oomph. Yet, for many, the 1970s was still a decade to continue what had been started in the 1960s. Although activism was no longer as intense as the previous decades, students have already realized their potential in changing the world. And so, instead of going back to their safe cocoon, they continued their struggle to promote various causes. This was true not only in the US, but in many other countries across the globe as well. For many young people, the dream of political and social justice has not waned. The 1970s may have seen the â€Å"hippies† going out of style but the causes they have adhered to remained intact and alive. Perhaps, the advent of more advanced technological innovations, like the computers, has redirected the venue among student activists. Instead of going out for street protests, they have learned to use electronic medium to advance th eir causes. In a way, the proliferation of the computers and the internet helped in spreading out the sentiments of students activists as far as social and political issues were concerned. Conclusion In the end, the 1960s and the 1970s redefined the world as it was. Perhaps, no decade since the Second World War has changed the face of the earth than in these two historical decades. The world, more specifically America, would not be what it is now if not for the student activism that flourished during these decades. Perhaps the young activists of the 1960s remain one of the most misunderstood young people to date. The fact that young people staked out their own social organization back then alienated and alarmed their elders. Surprisingly, what sprung forth as peculiarly youthful rebellion – drainpipe-trousered men, long-hair on both men and women, net-stockinged women — has already been received by adults worldwide (http://www.sos.state.mi.us/history/museum/explore/mus eums/hismus/1900-75/sixties/questio.html). The 1970s, despite its relative serenity and quiet merely continued what had been started in the 1960s. There were still student demonstrations all over the world, but they were not as intense as they were before. Yet, there was something in the 1970s that was not present in the previous decade. Perhaps learning from their experiences during the 1960s, student activists had become more enlightened and were less prone to rebellion unless really necessary. Too much freedom began to come hand in hand with social responsibilities. The â€Å"hippies† now belonged to a by-gone era and in its place sprouted a more practical youth. In spite of all that transpired, it became apparent that a pattern has subsequently emerged. The American university indeed became a political arena for a whole generation of Americans who already lost faith in the ability of the status quo to solve national concerns. These young people have come to realize the po wer that they yield in their collective hands. In other words, even before these young people discovered the adage that â€Å"what is personal is political,† they already belonged to a universe that believed they could alter the world (http://lists.village.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Exhibits/Track16.html#Poster). Whether this was true or not, only history will be able to hand down a verdict. Suffice it to say that perhaps what student activism longed for during these two decades, it was able to achieve. 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Profile of Students With Existential Intelligence

Profile of Students With Existential Intelligence Existential intelligence is the label  education researcher  Howard Gardner gave to students who think philosophically. This existential intelligence  is one of many  multiple intelligences  that Garner identified. Each of these labels for multiple intelligences... ...documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways,  (1991). Existential intelligence involves an individuals ability to use collective values and intuition to understand others and the world around them. People who excel in this intelligence typically are able to see the big picture. Philosophers, theologians and life coaches are among those that Gardner sees as having high existential intelligence. The Big Picture in his 2006 book, Multiple  Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice, Gardner gives the hypothetical example of Jane, who runs a company called Hardwick/Davis. Whereas her managers deal more with the day-to-day operational problems, Janes job is to steer the whole ship, says Gardner. She must maintain a longer-term outlook, take into account the conductions of the  marketplace, set a general direction, align her resources and inspire her employees and customers to stay on board. In other words, Jane needs to see the big picture; she needs to envision the future the future needs of the company,  customers, and marketplace and guide the organization in  that direction. That ability to see the big picture may be a distinct intelligence the existential intelligence says Gardner. Pondering the Most Fundamental Questions of Existence Gardner, a  developmental psychologist and a professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education,  is actually a bit unsure about including the existential realm in his nine intelligences. It was not one of the original seven intelligences that Gardner listed in his seminal 1983 book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. But, after an additional two decades of research, Gardner decided to include existential intelligence. This candidate for intelligence is based on the human proclivity to ponder the most fundamental questions of existence. Why do we live? Why do we die? Where do we come from? What is going to happen to us? Gardner asked in his later book. I sometimes say that these are questions that transcend perception; they concern issues that are too big or small to be perceived by our five sensory systems. Famous People With High Existential Intelligence Not surprisingly, major figures in history are among those who may be said to have high existential intelligence, including: Socrates: This famous Greek philosopher invented the Socratic method, which involves asking ever-deeper questions in an attempt to come to an understanding of the truth or at least to disprove untruths.Buddha: His name literally means one who is awake, according to the Buddhist Centre. Born in Nepal, Buddha taught in India probably between the sixth and fourth centuries B.C. He founded Buddhism, a religion that is based on seeking higher truths.Jesus Christ. The founder of one of the worlds major religions, Christ, pushed back against the status quo in first-century Jerusalem  and put forward the belief in a higher being, God, who possesses the eternal truth.St. Augustine: An early Christian theologian, St. Augustine based much of his philosophy on the teachings of Plato, a Greek philosopher who proposed the idea that there is an abstract truth that his higher and more complete than what we witness in the real, imperfect world. Life should be spent pursuing this abstract truth, bo th Plato and St. Augustine believed. In addition to examining the big picture, common traits in those with existential intelligence include: an interest in questions about life, death and beyond; an ability to look beyond the senses to explain phenomena; and a desire to be an outsider while at the same time showing a strong interest in society and those around them. Enhancing This Intelligence in the Classroom Through this intelligence, in particular, may seem esoteric, there are ways that teachers and students can enhance and strengthen existential intelligence in the classroom, including: Make connections between what is being learned and the world outside the classroom.Provide students with overviews to support their desire to see the big picture.Have students look at a topic from different points of view.Have students summarize the information learned in a lesson.Have students create lessons to teach their classmates information. Gardner, himself, gives some direction as to how to harness existential intelligence, which he sees as a natural trait in most children.  In any society where questioning is tolerated, children raise these existential questions from an early age though they do not always listen closely to the answers. As a teacher, encourage students to continue asking those big questions and then help them to find the answers.

ZAPPOS another successful venture of AMAZON.COM Essay

ZAPPOS another successful venture of AMAZON.COM - Essay Example ..the paramount concern †¦.as banks, food manufacturers and government officials suffer from losing people’s trust† (Need, n.d.). The benefit and success in business go hand in hand with trust. None of the businesses in the entire world would ever wish to run losses in the market however crowded it may seems to be. To be successful, business would want consumers to buy and try more and comfortably pay for the goods and services. This is where brand trust comes in. Defining brand trust remains challenging as any retailers would prefer its definition left to the consumers’ view of their products and services (Weinberg, 2009). However, my ideas seem to differ from that: it is the responsibility of the business to build trustworthy relationship with the consumers. A good example of brand trust can be taken from the printing industry. If you buy a printing machine allegedly printing one thousand copies in one minute, yet in reality it can only produce one hundred copies in one minute, then there is no trust towards the producers of the machine. The above example introduces another important factor in brand trust, which is honesty and clarity. Honesty and clarity are very much essential in building brand trust. According to the study conducted in 2010 by the Reader’s Digest European Trusted Brands, 13% of consumers trust advertising and 32% of consumers trust international companies. However, according to Nielsen Global Online Consumer Survey, 48% of consumers trust their work colleagues, friends and neighbors, 90% of consumers, trust recommendations from friends while 70% trust opinion posted online (Grimes, 2012). A question then may arise: do many clients understand key factors required to build trust? Perhaps we can say they do or they do not; it depends on the kind of scenario presented before the consumer. The only reality you can bank on is that every client wants to build trust. But how can we achieve trust for products and ser vices? This is a question many entrepreneurs and marketing officers attempt to answer on a daily basis. Just like people build trust in relationships, the same way clients build trust for brands and business. This is achieved through trust drivers as illustrated below. Factors influencing the effects of online Trust The steady growth of the Internet has in the recent past promoted e-commerce to a great extent. The Internet is now an essential part of a multichannel strategy for firms. In order to create a long term relationship guided by trust, companies are required to build on customer trust (Bhusry, 2005). This is very necessary in the world of e-commerce because consumers depend on the Internet for extraction of useful information and purchasing of products/services offered. Successful e-commerce requires a wide evaluation and understanding of how brand trust is achieved and the effects it has on consumer behavior (Epstein, 2004). In the case of Zappos e-business, quite a number of trust drivers come into plays. We must note that the web site design is also a very important part of e-commerce, and thus very essential factor in building trust. In addition, the web site design strategies of different web sites classification emphasize different characteristics like navigation, privacy and advice that are very crucial in building trust (Weinberg, 2009). Quite a number of factors may affect online trust of Zappos e-business, namely, risk of information, price of the product/service on the web site, financial risk and the navigation ability of the web site. The above factors can be broken down into details as follows: (a) Risk of Information. The risk of

Modernity and Tradition in Asia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Modernity and Tradition in Asia - Essay Example Modern history discusses the historical timeline after the middle Ages. It has two stages which include; early modern and the late modern periods. Contemporary history tells more about the period of historic events that are immediately applicable to the present time. Modern period is a period of important growth in various fields that include; politics, warfare, technology and science, these fields not only dominated the Western Europe and North America but nearly every cultured area on the world. Cultural nationalism is a body that mainly forms the modern political societies within an unsanctioned state authority hence it is a form in which a nation is defined by an inherited culture and it is a strong belief that interests a particular state. Role of cultural nationalism in china Cultural nationalism played some roles in the China community and made it what it is today. The China’s nationalism today (present) was produced by its pride in its history and its century of the humiliation at the hands of the west and the Japan. The Chinese nationalism had a positive impact that came all over during the post WWII era. Role of cultural nationalism in India Nationalism is commonly understood as a political concept hence, it is an ideology that provides source for the national integration, solidity and as well as seeking national independence from the colonial. Cultural nationalism has played a major role in the political reshaping of all the central Europe. During the post-WWII era nationalism emerged as a powerful force. It acted as a suitable system of acquiring economic aid and security declaration. During the post- WWII era nationalism reemerged as a serious factor in improving the worldwide political scene in the post cold war era. Modern Asian Civilizations Civilization is a controversial word that has been used in various connected ways. It is used to refer to the human cultures which are obviously complex in terms of science, technology and division of labor. The civilization advancement is usually and often measured by its progress in long distance trade, agriculture, urbanism and occupational specialization. 1. Japan The Japanese civilization began in approximately A.D. 400 when the Yamato clan who were based in Kyoto gained extreme control of family groups in the Western and Central Japan. In the 700s the Japan was influenced by China, this influence made the Yamato clan to set up a majestic court that was similar to that of the China. The Yamato ruling system contributed largely to the formation of the Japanese culture and its tradition that stated gods of the others s hould be venerated equally hence other people’s gods should be treated and be compared to their own gods (this Japanese tradition stills remains to date) (Matsumoto and Hosaka 1). 2. China China being an East Asian country has a large territory, an ancient history and a huge population. It has written records that date back to 4000 years. China is considered to be an ancient civilization that extends over a large area in the East Asia. China is among one of the four great world’s oldest civilizations and one among the most highly developed societies and economies. Most of the china’

The key steps of the implantation

The key steps of the implantation IMPLANTATION The life journey of a conceptus consists of many stages right from the point of conception to the point of birth which is one of natures wonders. However, an essential stage in this journey is the process of implantation. Implantation is generally defined as an event in which an embryo becomes progressively attached to the wall of the uterus during early pregnancy. This process is pivotal to the events that occur later in pregnancy. According to Makrigiannakis (2005), implantation is an active process in which a blastocyst apposes, attaches and progressively invades into the endometrium to establish the placenta (Figure 5). From this definition, we can deduce that the embryo undergoes the process of implantation at the blastocyst stage (Figure 1). Implantation is a process that occurs in mammals and it takes places in the endometrial lining of the uterus. IMPORTANCE OF IMPLANTATION Implantation is a key event in the reproductive physiology of mammals as it is a pre-requisite for further embryonic development. It is the first stage in the process of placental formation which is in turn is a crucial component of fetal development as it serves as a medium for nutrient absorption, gaseous exchange and waste disposal. Physiological defects in humans and other mammals have gone further to emphasize the importance of the implantation process. Implantation defects have been associated with non-chromosomal early pregnancy loss and infertility (Makrigiannakis, 2005). Many complications that show up late in pregnancy such as pre-eclampsia and preterm labour appear to have originated early in pregnancy with abnormalities in the process of implantation and placental development (Norwitz, 2006). Another implantation defect is a phenomenon known as ectopic pregnancy. In this case, the blastocyst implants outside the uterine cavity usually in the fallopian tubes although ectop ic implantation could also occur in the cervix, abdomen and ovaries. A good understanding of the steps involved in the process of implantation and the factors controlling these steps are necessary in order to be able to influence clinical outcomes in humans such as reduction of recurrent miscarriages and improvement of implantation rates in both natural and assisted reproduction. This will also be beneficial to the use of animals in the area of research and agriculture. A greater detail of the events that take place before and during the process implantation shall be discussed herein. PRE-IMPLANTATION DEVELOPMENT The developmental events that take place between the fertilization of the ovum and the implantation of the blastocyst are important in order to understand the process of implantation. Following fertilization, a process known as cleavage occurs (Figure 1). Cleavage is the mitotic division of the cells of the resulting embryo without any growth. This starts from the time the embryo is at the 2-cell stage and each cell continues to divide up to the morula stage. At this point the embryo is a solid ball of 16 or more cells. In humans, this stage is normally observed at about 4 days after fertilization. In continuation of development, the morula undergoes a process known as compaction. Here, the embryonic cells begin to change shape and gap junctions start to form between adjacent cells. The inner cells of the embryo then start to differentiate from the outer cells as different genes are being expressed in the inner and the outer cells. Blastocyst formation follows shortly after and the i nner cells give rise to the inner cell mass whilst the outer cells give rise to the trophoblast cells (Figure 1). A vast knowledge of the structure of the blastocyst is important as each of its structural components play an important role in the process of implantation. The inner cell mass of a blastocyst gives rise to the embryo proper while the trophoblast gives rise to the fetal component of the placenta (Schoenwolf et al., 2009). The process of implantation is generally known to take place a few days after fertilization and the uterine wall is ready to accept the implanting blastocyst during a limited period of time outside of which it may not optimally support the implantation of the embryo. This period of time is known as the ‘window of implantation (Psychoyos et al., 1995; Klentzeris, 1997). THE BLASTOCYST AND THE UTERUS BEFORE IMPLANTATION In the build up to the implantation process following pre-implantation development, there are a number of necessary events that take place. First of all, there has to be a receptive and hormonally primed uterus present. The uterus is composed of 3 layers namely the endometrium, perimetrium and myometrium (Figure 2). The endometrium which is the most important uterine tissue involved in implantation consists of the luminal epithelium, the stroma and the germinal basalis (Yoon et al., 2004). The hormone progesterone, which is secreted by the corpus luteum, is actively involved here as it makes the already thickened endometrial lining of the uterus more favourable for the implantation of the blastocyst. The thickening of the endometrium is due to the effect of estrogens (Norwitz, 2006). The blastocyst is then transported to the uterus via signalling mechanisms and arrives there at about 5 to 7 days after fertilization (Bischof and Campana, 1996). After the blastocyst arrives in the uter us, it begins to move towards the endometrium with the inner cell mass positioned towards the endometrial lining (Bischof and Campana, 1996). Before any further interaction with the endometrium, the blastocyst must undergo a process known as hatching. This simply involves the blastocyst boring a hole through the zona pellucida with the aid of enzymes and squeezing out. It is a general school of thought that serine proteases are responsible for this process although the mechanisms behind its action are not clearly understood (OSullivan et al., 2002). After hatching, the blastocyst is naked of all its original investments and can interact directly with the endometrium (Schoenwolf et al., 2009). At this time, blastocystis also known to secrete moleculesthat affect the activity of the ovary, fallopian tube and the endometrium (Norwitz, 2006). Shortly before the blastocyst comes in contact with the endometrium, thetrophoblastdifferentiates intotwo different cell masses, which are the inn er cytotrophoblast and the outer syncytiotrophoblast which is formed as a result of the fusion of cytotrophoblast cells. PATTERNS OF IMPLANTATION There are three known patterns of implantation which are centric, eccentric and interstitial (Wimsatt, 1975). Centric implantation occurs when the embryo expands and increases in size before implantation, then stays in the centre of the uterus (Lee and DeMayo, 2004). Examples of animals that undergo this pattern of implantation include rabbits, dogs, cows, pigs, sheep, horses and a number of marsupials. Eccentric implantation occurs when the embryo is small in size and implants inside the endometrium usually taking place on the side of the uterus, opposite to the mesometrium (Lee and DeMayo, 2004). Examples of animals that show this pattern of implantation include rats, mice and hamsters. In Interstitial implantation, the embryo is also small and it invades through the endometrial epithelium into the subepithelial connective tissue (Lee and DeMayo, 2004). Examples of animals under this category include guinea pigs and humans (Wimsatt, 1975). KEY STEPS OF THE IMPLANTATION PROCESS There are three key steps in the process implantation namely apposition, attachment and invasion. Apposition This is the first major step of the implantation process following the hatching of the blastocyst. During apposition, the blastocyst comes in slight contact forming a weak bond with the uterine luminal epithelium. Microvilli on the apical surface of the cytotrophoblasts interlock with microprotrusions called pinopodes (Figure 3) which are present on the apical surface of the endometrial epithelium (Norwitz et al., 2001). This interaction involves changes in the expression of cell adhesion molecules and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins (Nagaoka et al., 2003). Pinopodes are progesterone-dependent organelles, and they have been suggested to be indicators of endometrial receptivity (Nikas, 1999). In humans, they are usually visible on days 20-21 of the menstrual cycle prior to the time of implantation (Nikas, 1999). They could facilitate implantation by preventing the blastocyst from being swept away by uterine cilia (Stavreus-Evers, 2005). It has been identified that high molecular w eight mucin glycoproteins particularly MUC1, are dominant inhibitors of embryo apposition and attachment (Thathiah and Carson, 2002). However, a decrease in the expression of MUC1 at the time of implantation could facilitate blastocyst apposition (Thathiah and Carson, 2002). During apposition, soluble mediators such as chemokines e.g. CX3CL1, CCL7, CCL14 and CCL4 have been found to establish a dialogue between the maternal cells and those of the blastocyst (Hannan and Salamonsen, 2007). Chemokines are a large family of chemotactic cytokines, well known for their functions in leucocyte recruitment and activation (Dominguez et al., 2003). They have a wide range of functions and have been implicated to play a role in implantation (Dominguez et al., 2003). Chemokines have been localized in areas of inflammation and they are suggested to be potential mediators of inflammation (Feng, 2000). This could be the reason why blastocysts tend to implant on scar tissue from caesarean sections which is an area of inflammation (Dominguez et al., 2005). The dialogue between the maternal and blastocyst cells has important influences on the development of the implanting blastocyst and maintenance of endometrial receptivity (Hannan and Salamonsen, 2007). It also results in the expression of a unique array of adhesion molecules on the surface of both fetal and maternal cells, promoting the attachment of the trophoblast cells to the endometrial epithelium (Hannan and Salamonsen, 2007). Attachment Following apposition, the next step in the process of implantation is known as attachment or adhesion. This is characterized by increased physical contact between the blastocyst and the uterine epithelium (Norwitz et al., 2001). At this point the blastocyst can no longer be dislodged. A ligand carbohydrate known as trophinin has been identified as an adhesion molecule that mediates the initial step of attachment of the blastocyst to the endometrial epithelium (Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). Trophinin mediates cell adhesion by homophilic Trophinin-Trophinin binding (Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). A carbohydrate-binding protein known as L-selectin which is expressed in the blastocyst, has also been discovered to play a role in human embryo attachment (Genbacev et al., 2003). Interaction between L-selectin on the blastocyst and L-selectin ligands on the endometrial surface allows for loose attachment and rolling of blastocyst to its implantation site ((Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). The human Ch orionic Gonadotrophin (HCG) produced by the blastocyst up regulates trophinin expression on pinopodes and down regulates MUC1 expression (Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). The blastocyst then adheres to the pinopodes by trophinin-trophinin interaction (Figure 4). A substance known as Heparin Binding Epidermal Growth Factor (HB EGF) has also been implicated in blastocyst attachment (Lim and Dey, 2008). This growth factor is expressed by the endometrium whilst its receptors are present on the blastocyst. This interaction also helps in facilitating the attachment of the blastocyst. Figure 4: Proposed role of L-selectin and trophinin in human embryo implantation. Source: Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008. (a) A human blastocyst entering the uterine cavity is prevented from attaching to the endometrial epithelia by MUC1, except for epithelia that express the L-selectin ligand (T). The human blastocyst expresses L-selectin (L), and ‘rolls on the surface of the endometrium covered by glycocalyx. (b) The blastocyst feebly interacts with the glycocalyx. Here, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which is secreted from the blastocyst, acts locally on endometrial epithelia to induce trophinin expression. (c) Trophinin expressed by endometrial epithelia is enriched in the pinopodes, the structure extended above the glycocalyx. MUC1, which carries the L-selectin ligand, is down-regulated from the endometrial epithelia underneath the blastocyst, allowing direct contact and attachment of blastocyst trophectoderm cells and pinopodes via trophinin-trophinin binding. Invasion The next step which is critical to the implantation of the blastocyst is known as invasion. As the term implies, this involves the infiltration of the endometrium by the cytotrophoblast cells of the blastocyst. This starts with the progression of the trophoblast cells between the adjacent endometrial epithelial cells to reach the underlying basement membrane. This membrane is destroyed, allowing the trophoblast cells to reach the stromal compartment (Bischof and Campana, 1996). The syncytiotrophoblast undergoes proliferation and invades the endometrial stroma. The progressive invasion of the blastocyst into the endometrium continues until the blastocyst is completely embedded in subepithelial stromal tissue and the uterine epithelium grows to cover the implantation site (Norwitz, 2006). The syncytiotrophoblast cells continue to develop quickly and surround the blastocyst until it has completely embedded itself in the endometrial stroma. In the syncytiotrophoblast, fluid-filled spaces known as lacunae are formed as a result of the fusion of syncytiotrophoblast cells. The lacunae are separated by trabeculae and they transform the syncytiotrophoblast into a sponge-like material (Bischof and Campana, 1996). The trabeculae are arranged radially, and cytotrophoblastic cells divide within the trabeculae, leading to the formation of primary chorionic villi (Bischof and Campana, 1996). Following this event, the primary villi grow and branch into secondary and tertiary villi (Bischof and Campana, 1996). This process is known as placentation. A wide range of factors e.g. cytokines, integrins, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), Leukaemia Inhibiting Factor (LIF) e.t.c have been found to play a role in the invasion process (Makrigiannakis, 2005; Norwitz, 2006). The role of these c omponents in the process of implantation shall be discussed shortly under the factors that regulate implantation. Figure 5: Implantation of the human blastocyst step by step. Source: Bischof and Campana, 1996. (1): Transport. The blastocyst arrives in the uterus after fertilization. (2) Orientation: The inner cell mass is positioned towards the endometrial lining. (3) Hatching: The zona pellucida is perforated making way for the release of the blastocyst. (4) Apposition: The blastocyst is now in close contact with the endometrial lining but no connections have been established. (5) Adhesion: Connections are established between the embryo and the endometrial epithelium. (6) Invasion: Thin folds of trophectodermal cells intrude between the endometrial epithelial cells. (7) Syncytialization: Some trophectodermal cells fuse to form syncytia which proliferate and invade the endometrial stroma. (8) Villous formation: The cytotrophoblastic cells migrate between the syncytia followed by the fetal stroma. This will lead to the formation of the placental villi. The cells of the endometrial stroma react to the presence of the blastocyst and the secretion of progesterone by differentiating into metabolically active, secretory cells called decidual cells (Schoenwolf et al., 2009). This response is known as the decidual reaction or decidualization. In humans, this begins in the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle. The decidua is also known as the maternal portion of the placenta (Gilbert, 2006) and it is believed to provide an element of control of trophoblast invasion during implantation (Loke and King, 1995). The decidualized stroma cells have been found to secrete prolactin and Insulin-like Growth Factor Binding Protein-1(IGFBPI) which are held to function in complex gene networks that function in the regulation of trophoblast invasion as well as many other endocrine and paracrine factors (Bazer et al., 2010). This regulatory function is required for the optimal implantation of the blastocyst as the invasion of the cytotrophoblast to the proper depth is a major factor in determining pregnancy outcome (Norwitz, 2006). Excessive invasion resulting from the inability of the decidua to control the invading cytotrophoblast cells could lead to an unusually strong attachment of the placenta to the myometrium (placenta accreta), extension into the myometrium (placenta increta), or invasion through the myometrium into adjacent organs also known as placenta percreta (Norwitz, 2006). Insufficient cytotrophoblast invasion has also been associated with pre-eclampsia (Lyall, 2006; Lee et al., 2010) which is a medical complication that presents itself late in pregnancy. During implantation, a process known as angiogenesis has been identified to be important (Sherer and Abulafia, 2001). Angiogenesis is the growth of new capillaries from pre-existing blood vessels. In this case, it occurs in the endometrium and takes place throughout the implantation period. Endometrial angiogenesis starts with the degradation of the capillary vessel membrane, creating a means through which migrating endothelial cells proliferate to create a new lumen and further vessel maturation (Sherer and Abulafia, 2001). This vascularization functions to maintain endometrial structure and receptivity. Angiogenesis is known to be mediated by some factors present in the endometrium such as fibroblast growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor and platelet activating factors (Norwitz 2006; Sherer and Abulafia, 2001). FACTORS THAT REGULATE IMPLANTATION The regulation of implantation and early development is dependent on a wide range of factors. Although the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind implantation are not well understood, it is apparent that multiple factors (including maternal and fetal) are needed to synchronize blastocyst maturation and uterine receptivity up to the point of initiation of implantation and through the process of implantation (Norwitz, 2006). A closer look will now be taken at some of the important factors associated with implantation and early pregnancy maintenance. Maternal factors Starting with the uterine (maternal) side, there are a lot of components to consider. Cytokines and growth factors have been shown by different studies to be important to the maternal role in implantation. These include interleukin-1 (Sheth et al., 1991; Simon et al., 1996; Stewart and Cullinan, 1997; Huang et al., 1998), Interleukin-2 (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997), Insulin-like growth factor I and II (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997; Giudice and Irwin, 1999), transforming growth factor a and (Slowey et al., 1994; Stewart and Cullinan, 1997; Godkin and Dore, 1998), vascular endothelial growth factor (Athanassiades et al., 1998) and leukemia inhibitory factor (Cullinan et al., 1996; Stewart and Cullinan, 1997). The mode of function of the leukemia inhibitory factor is not well understood but has been established as a critical factor in the process of implantation (Stewart et al., 1992; Cheng et al. 2002). These cytokines and growth factors all work towards facilitating the communication bet ween the blastocyst and the uterus whilst promoting endometrial proliferation and differentiation (Norwitz, 2006). They have also been found to regulate endometrial angiogenesis and vascular permeability (Norwitz, 2006). As mentioned earlier, some steroid hormones such as Progesterone (Peyron et al., 1993) and Oestradiol-17 (Miller, 1988) have also been found to be important. They function in the proliferation of uterine epithelial cells and endometrial stromal cells (Norwitz, 2006). Some changes in the uterine luminal epithelium such as the expression of pinopodes (Nikas, 1999) and MUC 1 (Thathiah and Carson, 2002) have been suggested to be important for blastocyst recognition and attachment. Transcription factors such as the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-s (Lim et al., 1999; Barak et al., 1999) have been identified to function in defining the molecular mechanisms by which the regulatory factors exert their effects at a cellular level (Norwitz, 2006). Studies have shown the relevance of some other components such as homeobox genes Hoxa-10 and 11 which have been found to regulate the responsiveness of stromal cells to progesterone (Benson et al., 1996; Taylor et al., 1997; Lim et al., 19 99), Cyclooxy-genase-2 which regulates prostaglandin production (Norwitz and Wilson 2000) and oxygen tension (Genbacev et al., 1997) which has been found to promote trophoblast vascular mimicry by initiating integrin expression. Also, proteins such as Rac1 and RhoA which are found in stromal cells have been implicated in trophoblast invasion (Grewal et al., 2008). Fetal factors Evaluations of the blastocyst (fetal) factors also reveal that present here, are some of the groups of factors present on the maternal side of implantation as they possess some overlapping functions. Cytokines and growth factors, in addition to facilitating communication between the blastocyst and uterus, could also enhance trophoblast differentiation and invasion. These include Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6 (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997), leukemia inhibiting factor, transforming growth factor a and , insulin-like growth factor II and colony stimulating factor-1 (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997, Cohen et al., 1997). Some trophoblast proteinases and inhibitors such as the matrix metalloproteinases (Makrigiannakis, 2005) and cathepsin B and L (Afonso et al., 1997) have also been found to regulate trophoblast invasion. The expression of some adhesion molecules e.g. integrins have been identified in the enhancement of trophoblast invasion. Some of them include integrin a64, integrin a11 and E-ca dherin (Lessey, 1998; Lessey and Arnold, 1998; Damsky and Fisher, 1998). Some other important factors include prostaglandin E2 which aids the process of endometrial apoptosis and platelet-activating factor which stimulates uterine prostaglandin production (Norwitz, 2006). Immunological factors The immunological interactions between the blastocyst and the uterine decidua are essential in the regulation of the implantation process. Implantation is of immunological significance because the blastocyst contains half of its paternal genes hence it is immunologically foreign to its mother. Despite this fact, blastocyst implantation still turns out to be a successful process and the blastocyst is not rejected by the maternal immune system during normal implantation. This is down to the action of immunological factors. These factors are a combination of elements expressed by both the blastocyst and the uterus and they act together to ensure fetal survival. On the maternal side such factors include Interleukin-10 (Roth et al., 1996; Roth and fisher, 1999) which plays an important role in immunosuppression thus reducing the activity of the maternal immune system against the foetus (Norwitz, 2006). Another factor is 2, 3-dioxygenase (Kamimura et al., 1991; Munn et al., 1998) which has been found to be responsible for macrophage action during implantation (Norwitz, 2006). Uterine natural killer cells found in the stroma also play a role here as they produce cytokine, chemokines and angiogenic factors which all promote and regulate trophoblast invasion (King and Loke, 1997). On the fetal side, factors such as histocompatibility antigen, class I, G (HLA-G) have been found to be involved in preventing the maternal immune rejection of the semi-allogenic foetus (Lanier, 1999; Norwitz, 2006). Coordination of the regulatory factors within the window of implantation The window of implantation as defined earlier is characterized by the perfect synchrony of all the components that play a role in the implantation process. These include the endometrium, the blastocyst and the factors regulating the process of implantation. Figure 6 below illustrates how all these factors are coordinated during the implantation window. This shows that within the window of implantation, the endometrium is highly influenced by steroid hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) and the interaction between the blastocyst and the endometrium is as a result of stage-specific actions of different implantation factors. Figure 6: Events that take place within the implantation window. Source: Achache and Revel, 2006 (A) Endometrium proliferates under the enhancement of estrogen. (B) Progesterone from follicles that have been luteinized leads to endometrial differentiation. (C) The blastocyst makes its way to the uterus via the ostia and rolls freely over the endometrium with the aid of L-selectin signals. (D) MUC-1 repels the blastocyst and prevents it from adhering to areas on the endometrium with poor chances of implantation. (E) Cytokines and chemokines attract the blastocyst to the optimal implantation spot. (F) Adhesion molecules (e.g. integrins and cadherins) attach the blastocyst firmly to the endometrial pinopodes to ensure successful implantation. The functions of all the factors mentioned earlier further emphasize the importance of these components to the process of implantation. A lot of studies have also been carried out on some of these molecules to further establish their importance. A notable one amongst these molecules is the leukemia inhibitory factor. As mentioned earlier, this molecule has been identified to be critical to the process of implantation. Studies revealed that implantation did not occur in female transgenic mice that were homozygous for the deficiency of the gene responsible for the leukemia inhibitory factor (Aghajanova, 2004). It was further proven that the lack of implantation was not caused by faults in the embryo because the implantation of the same embryos occurred when they were transferred to pseudopregnant recipients. The addition of exogenous LIF to the females with this defective gene throughout the period of normal implantation restored implantation sites and allowed proper attachments of the blastocysts (Aghajanova, 2004). LIF and LIF mRNA has also been shown to be expressed throughout the menstrual cycle of women with proven fertility (Arici et al., 1995; Charnock-Jones et al., 1994). This was associated with peaks in the mid and late secretory phase, and in early pregnancy (Aghajanova, 2004). Leukemia inhibitory factor has also been found to be present in uterine flushings within the implantation window in fertile women. This characterized by gradually increasing concentrations from 7 days to 12 days after the LH surge (Laird et al., 1997). In future, the evidence and information obtained from similar studies may be applied clinically through a well regimented administration of LIF in a pharmaceutical form to improve implantation rates in both natural and assisted reproduction. IMPLANTATION AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY (ART) Successful pregnancy outcomes from assisted reproductive techniques such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) have largely depended on the process of implantation. The advances in ART techniques have not had a significant effect on implantation rates (Donaghay and Lessey, 2007) hence a lot of measures have been taken by ART units over the years in an attempt to optimize implantation rates. Assisted hatching (Cohen, 1991) is a well known procedure carried out in this regard. This involves the manual perforation of a blastocysts zona pellucida in order to separate the blastocyst from the zona pellucida just as it would have occurred during natural hatching. This may increase implantation and pregnancy rates in IVF cycles (Chao et al., 1997). The function of regulatory factors in the process of implantation indicates that a number of biomarkers can be adapted from these to determine the ideal period of endometrial receptivity which can be traced and monitored during IVF cycles (Haouzi et al. , 2009). These may include the detection and monitoring of some of the molecules and steroid hormones involved in implantation by making use of samples obtained from IVF treatment cycles such as follicular fluids and embryo culture supernatants. Fluorescent markers can also be used to highlight proteins and any other key component in the blastocyst involved in implantation. Continuous studies are being performed with the aim of discovering techniques that would improve implantation rates during ART treatments. CONCLUSION Over the years, the research carried out on implantation and the factors that control implantation has been done making use of mostly animal models with the exception of some that have employed the use of in vitro human systems. The use of animals in the study of implantation has many benefits as many factors and regulatory mechanisms are being discovered. However, it is difficult to precisely extrapolate results obtained from animal data into human cases. This is one of the problems being encountered by implantation studies as the difficulty and ethical significance associated with research using humans make scientists resort to the use of animal models. The process of implantation occurs with the uterus and the blastocyst in synchrony. It has been clearly shown that a lot of factors are responsible but the complete framework of the regulation of implantation has not yet been understood. With continuous research and more human-based studies, a better understanding of the process and regulation of implantation may be achieved in the future. REFERENCES Achache, H. and Revel, A., 2006. Endometrial receptivity markers, the journey to successful embryo implantation. Hum. Reprod. Update. 12(6), 731-746. Afonso, S., Romagnano, L. and Babiarz, B., 1997. The expression and function of cystatin C and cathepsin B and cathepsin L during mouse embryo implantation and placentation. Development. 124, 3415-3425. Aghajanova, L., 2004. Leukemia inhibitory factor and human embryo implantation. Ann. NY. Acad. Sci.1034, 176-183. Arici, A., Engin, O., Attar, E. And Olive, D.L., 1995. Modulation of leukaemia inhibitory factor gene expression and protein biosynthesis in human endometrium. J. Clin. Endocr. Metab. 80, 1908-1915 Athanassiades, A., Hamilton, G.S., Lala, P.K., 1998. Vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates proliferation but not migration or invasiveness in human extravillous trophoblast. Biol. Reprod. 59, 643-654. Barak, Y., Nelson, M.C., Ong, E.S. et al., 1999. PPAR gamma is required for placental, cardiac, and adipose tissue development. Molecular Cell 4, 585-595. Bazer, F.W., Wu, G., Spencer, T.E., Johnson, G.A., Burghardt, R.C. and Bayless, K., 2010. Novel pathways for implantation and establishment and maintenance of pregnancy in mammals. Mol. Hum. Reprod 16(3), 135-152. Benson, G.V., Lim, H., Paria, B.C. et al., 1996. Mechanisms of reduced fertility in Hoxa-10 mutant mice: uterine homeostasis and loss of maternal Hoxa-10 expression. Development. 122, 2687-2696. Bischof, P. and Campana, A., 1996. A model for implantation of the human blastocyst and early placentation. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2(3), 262-270. Chao, K., Wu, M., Chen, S., Yang, Y., Chen, H. and Ho, H., 1997. Assisted hatching increases the implantation and pregnancy rate of in vitro fertilization (IVF)-embryo transfer (ET), but not that of IVF-tubal ET in patients with repeated IVF failures. Fertil. Steril. 67(5), 904-908 Charnock-Jones, D.S., Sharkey, A.M., Fenwick, P. and Smith, S.K., 1994. Leukemia inhibitory factor mRNA concentration peaks in human endometrium at the time of implantation and the blastocyst contains mRNA for the rec

Essay --

The Discourse on Inequality by Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau though a philosopher in the eighteenth century sense, was not what would now be called a ‘philosopher.’ Nevertheless he had a great deal on influence on the philosophical workings of his time and indeed of every subsequent period that followed him. Not only this but also he exerted his influence in the fields of literature, politics etc. Irrespective of the credibility one attaches to him as a philosopher, one cannot over look his influence as a primary social force. Rousseau was a philosopher that appealed to one’s good sense, one’s heart and so for this purpose has been termed as a Romantic philosopher. Others have accredited him with producing facts and ideas that are entirely non-human but nonetheless have been derived from human emotions and other related aspects of an individual’s life. He has also given rise to a political philosophy of sorts, which is a far cry from the absolute monarchies that prevailed in that time. However experts point out that this philosophy is only a weak attempt at democracy and so has been termed as ‘pseudo-democratic’ by many of them. Those that consider themselves true reformers have been divided into two groups; one that follows the ideals of John Locke and the other that associates itself with the premises presented by Rousseau. Therefore it has been often suggested that Hitler is an outcome of Rousseau whereas Roosevelt and Churchill belong to Locke. Though his literary career started rather late and was full of eventualities, Rousseau’s second essay a â€Å"Discourse on Inequality† (1754) remains largely popular to this day. This is because it consists of ideas that were unheard of at the time. However it must be noted t... ...ecause of the Industrial Revolution. Since having more ensures a certain position for an individual in the society thus it brings about social inequality in the environment. The above analysis shows that Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Discourses do consist of some valid and thought-provoking ideas. One is forced to consider the very institutions that one blithely takes for granted and in the process realizes that these man made institutions are responsible for bringing about social inequality in the society. Thus one can say that the argument which suggests that Rousseau’s theory is correct in assuming that institutions bring about inequality and serve to trap the modern human race. Bibliography 1. Ritter, Alan (Ed.). Rousseau's Political Writings: Discourse on Inequality, Discourse on Political Economy on Social Contract. New York: WW Norton & Company, 1999.

Skin Sensitivity

Block 5 Skin Sensitivity Lab Hypothesis: The fingertips will be the most sensitive because they are used the most for touching things all of the time. The area that will be the least sensitive is the shins because we are constantly bumping into things with our shins so they need to be less sensitive to pain. Data: TEST |Index Finger Tip | Thumb | Palm | Back of Hand | Forearm (inside) | Fore- head | Nose | Back of Neck |Shin | |1 probe |+ |+ |+ |+ |- |- |+ |- |- | |1 mm |+ |- |+ |+ |+ |- |+ |+ |- | |3 mm |+ |+ |+ |+ |- |+ |+ |+ |+ | |5 mm |+ |+ |+ |- |+ |+ |+ |+ |+ | |10 mm |+ |+ |+ |+ |- |- |+ |- |+ | |TOTALS |5 |4 |5 |4 |2 |2 |5 |3 |3 | |CLASS AVG |4. 3 |4. 0 |3. 3 |2. 8 |3. 0 |2. 9 |3. 0 |3. 0 |2. 9 | | Conclusion: The most sensitive areas of my body were my fingertips, palm, and nose. The least sensitive areas of my body were my forearm and forehead.This partly supported my hypothesis because the fingertips were among the most sensitive but my shins were not the least sensitive. My results were fairly close to the rest of the class. The only two areas that were more than a point apart between my data and the class average were my palms and my nose. These areas were more sensitive to me than the rest of the class. Some areas might be more sensitive because they are involved with touching and bumping into things than others. For example my fingertips were far more sensitive than y forearms because I use them to touch things all the time and the touch receptors are more dense in them. It makes sense that touch receptors are more dense in areas that are involved in more touching than others. In places where a lot of bumping into things occurs such as the shins, touch receptors would be less dense because you wouldn't want to feel all that pain all the time. Meissner’s corpuscles are light touch receptors in the skin which are prone to touch sensitivity.They are located just under the epidermis, which makes sense because they are closer to the outside so they can be more sensitive to light touch. Pacinian corpuscles are touch receptors located deeper in the dermis in the skin that respond to touch and pressure. They are good for feeling rough surfaces and determining vibration. The location of these receptors are deeper in the skin because they are designed to feel pressure so when something pushes down on the skin they can respond.The homunculus diagram is showing how the human body would be built if it was in proportion to the amount of sensory and motor brain power needed to control each part. The hands and mouth are bigger because they require more brain power to control. In the somatosensory cortex diagram the mouth and hands are also bigger which might explain why the skin in both of these areas is more sensitive than in other parts of the body. In both diagrams the bigger body parts require more control from the brain and have more sensitive skin.